Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements during this stage. Toilet training is the major conflict, wherein the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

During the initial stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, hence it is named as the oral stage. Here, the rooting and sucking reflexes are given utmost importance. Besides eating, the mouth is also used for other gratifying experiences such as tasting random objects and sucking thumbs or other objects.

Freud believed that, as a person grows from child to adult, the nature of the conflicts among the id, ego, and superego changes. According to him these conflicts progress through a series of five basic stages, namely: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. He called his idea the psychosexual theory of development, with each psychosexual stage directly related to a different physical center of pleasure

The superego is called the ‘moral watchdog’ as it is said to provide a ‘conscience’ or ‘moral compass’. It is more in touch with social rules and responsibilities. It is developed when a child learns the difference between right and wrong.

The ego strikes a balance between the impulsive id and the moral superego by being rational and pragmatic. It finds a common ground between the conscious and unconscious. It satisfies the desires of the id through a moral, careful way, hence satisfying the superego as well.

Id is the most primitive of the three structures which is concerned with instant gratification of basic needs or urges. Id is completely operated by the unconscious brain.

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, or structural theory of personality, argues that human behaviour is a direct result of the interaction and conflict between 3 components of the mind, namely the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud’s theory places great focus on the unconscious mind playing a major role in shaping one’s behaviour and personality.

Webster’s dictionary defines personality as ‘the complex of characteristics that distinguishes an individual or a nation or a group’. Personality is a set of behaviours, cognitions, and emotional patterns that are born out of our biological and environmental patterns.

Therapists use guided imagery techniques (fantasy) to encourage clients to imagine situations such as what they would do in a certain situation or by projecting themselves into different roles. Fantasy is also a tool that can be used in experimenting with new behaviour, becoming more aware of the experience, and as a therapeutic technique. Fantasy provides a creative stage on which to explore unlimited potentials.

Webster’s dictionary describes fantasies as: the power or process of creating especially unrealistic or improbable mental images in response to psychological need, an object of fantasy; also : a mental image or a series of mental images (such as a daydream) so created sexual fantasies.

The main difference between shame and guilt is that shame is caused by not meeting societal values, and guilt is caused by not meeting our own values. Between the two, guilt can be healthier as it gives us scope for rational thinking and better evaluation. Shame is entirely based on our feelings, wherein we give someone else the power to make decisions for us and correct our behaviour.

Guilt is a result of our actions. Morton says guilt is that feeling when we judge our behaviour as being negative or wrong.

Shame is what we feel about ourselves. Kati Mrton describes it as a painful feeling of humiliation or distress caused by the consciousness of wrong or foolish behaviour.

Brené Brown says that vulnerability is the birthplace of innovation, creativity, and change.

According to Brown, we tend to keep vulnerability at the root of negative emotions like shame, anxiety, and fear.

Brené Brown is a researcher, author, and storyteller, primarily in the field of vulnerability as well as shame.

Brené Brown defines vulnerability as emotional risk, exposure, uncertainty, and something which fuels our daily lives. According to her, vulnerability is our most accurate measurement of courage.

Cambridge dictionary defines vulnerability as “able to be easily physically, emotionally, or mentally hurt, influenced, or attacked”.

Negative emotions include sadness, anger, loneliness, fear, anxiety, etc.

Positive emotions include happiness, joy, interest, curiosity, excitement, gratitude, love, contentment, etc.

Joy, excitement, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, etc. are some common emotions

In psychology, emotions are often described as a complex state of feeling that causes physical and psychological changes, which eventually influence thought and behavior. ‘Emotionality’ is associated with a range of psychological phenomena, including temperament, personality, mood, and motivation.

Being an experiential form of therapy, it aims at expanding a client’s direct experience. The only way, according to Gestalt, of dealing with an impasse is to accept, enter, explore, and be grateful for it. An individual will only be whole by taking responsibility for himself/herself.

Why does someone go for therapy? It‘s because the person needs to solve their problem.  They are stuck at a point where their own resources are insufficient to take them out of this problem and unless the problem is solved, there will be an uncomfortable, frustrated and immobilizing state called an “Impasse”.

In Gestalt therapy, a transference- countertransference is viewed as always present in the interactions between individuals in the present moment. We hope to bring these fixed gestalts into awareness and if appropriate, make it the subject of dialogue.

The concept of transference was first described by Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Although some person-centered therapists (e.g. John Shlien – a student, friend and colleague of Carl Rogers) have challenged the existence and/or importance of transference in psychotherapy, it is generally held to be a useful concept across modalities.

Transference describes a situation where the feelings, desires, and expectations of one person are redirected and applied to another person. In therapeutic settings, transference occurs when a person applies certain feelings or emotions toward the therapist. For example, the feelings a person may have for their loved ones, are unconsciously redirected or transferred onto the therapist. It usually concerns feelings from a primary relationship during childhood.

According to Webster’s dictionary, projection is the attribution of one's own ideas, feelings, or attitudes to other people or to objects; especially : the externalization of blame, guilt, or responsibility as a defense against anxiety.

Example of projection

Projection is a defense mechanism where an individual attributes their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives onto another person. For eg: when you hate someone and your superego tells you that such kind of hatred is unacceptable, you end up believing that they hate you.

The idea of idealism is essentially what a society expects an individual to be like. Stereotypes, gender roles, society’s standards, etc. can all come under the idea of idealism.

Webster’s dictionary defines idealism as “the practice of forming ideals or living under their influence”, or “something that is idealized”.

Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback loops within the organism. In contrast, positive feedback loops push the organism further out of homeostasis, but may be necessary for life to occur. Homeostasis is controlled by the nervous and endocrine systems in mammals.

Homeostasis is a self-regulatory process determined from within. This is the principle that is maintained by an individual‘s body for survival. Homeostasis is the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things. This dynamic state of equilibrium is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range).

A holon is something that is simultaneously a whole and a part. A holon is a system (or phenomenon) that is an evolving self organizing dissipative structure, composed of other holons, whose structures exist at a balance point between chaos and order.

Arthur Koestler, author of Austrian-Hungarian roots, proposed the idea of a holon which was later developed into a theory.

1.  Inner-individual:introspective consciousness

2.  Outer-individual: observable behavior

3.  Inner-collective: our cultural beliefs

4.  Outer-collective: the society we live in

A core concept in Wilber's philosophy is the concept of the holon, which he borrowed from Arthur Koestler. The idea is that everything is not only a whole, but also part of a larger whole, so a "part/whole" or "hol-on". That is true for atoms, molecules, organisms, human beings, but also for letters in a word, words in a sentence, sentences on a page, pages in a book, etc. -- as the familiar holistic sequence goes.

Following are the seven basic contacts:

• Looking

Looking at something or someone allows you to build contact. For e.g., reading a book gets you in contact with its ideas.

• Listening

An individual can listen to the sound of people, like listening to a podcast, and develop ideas accordingly. Chaos is not appreciated, which is why they usually prefer to speak without interrupting the speaker.

Different kinds of listening

Listening entails criticism, support, information, condescension, complexities, and/or simple facts.

• Touching

Touch is the most basic, primitive way of forming contact with someone.

• Talking

Talking helps us reach out to someone through voice modification. The tone, pace, intent, language, and volume of our speech indicates our different moods and emotions.

• Moving

In movement, one can either see the unimpeded fluid action of an individual who supports the activity which they are engaged with or one sees the clumsy actions of someone caught between impulse and inhibition.

• Smelling

Good or bad smells can have relative impacts on us and thus the contact that forms.

• Tasting

Tasting is another way of forming contact by indulging in it physically.

A contact is a form of communication, wherein we communicate with every other thing in our environment. Contact often refers to getting in touch with someone.

Following are the contact boundary disturbances:

• Confluence

Confluence refers to the reduction in size, extent, or importance of the ‘self’, along with diminished contact boundaries of the client.

• Introjection

According to the psychoanalytic theory, introjection is a defense mechanism used to resolve an emotional conflict by placing a mental representation of an object inside the mind. If this leads to increased independence, this mechanism is said to be highly adaptive.

• Projection

Projection is also a defense mechanism where one attributes one’s own undesirable thoughts/ impulses/ ideas on to another person as a way of conflict resolution.

• Retroflection

Retroflection is a way of doing to oneself what one would like for others to do to him/her. For e.g., boasting about something that one wants to be praised for.

• Deflection

Deflection is a situation where an individual either blocks an emotional trigger or turns themselves away from the situation to prevent causing emotional distress.

Following are the four varieties of expression:

• Blocked

The person does not know what to express.

• Inhibited

The person knows but does not want to express.

• Exhibitionistic

The person expresses but It‘s not integrated.

• Spontaneous

Is the gold standard.

Following are the five types of contact boundaries:

• Body

Body boundary is where the sensation is limited to individual experience.

• Value

This is when the client is reluctant to or declines any modification in their boundary, for some people have rigid perceptions and morale.

• Familiarities

An action an individual performs on a daily basis is not given much thought as they are not consciously aware of it.  What happens is when something happens in the life of the person and there is a sudden change, they don't know how to deal with it as most of the action they were taking was without any awareness. We cling to what we know rather than to venture out into unfamiliar boundaries.

• Expressive

Expressive boundaries, physical contact, verbal contact, emotion expression like crying or laughing, are the thoughts formed in childhood. These are all the range of things that are not allowed. The self is not a structure, it is a process, and whilst you do lose your identity to expand the I- Boundary, this allows the self to develop.

• Exposure boundaries

When a person comes to accept all his variety of beings, then he can be exposed without a problem.

A person’s I-boundary is the range of what contact is permissible to the world and to themselves. Within the I-boundary, contact is easy; at the edge of it, it becomes risky, exciting and less certain; outside the I- boundary, contact is impossible.

1) Phony -   When an individual reacts in a ‘phony manner’.

2) Phobic - When an individual tries to avoid psychological pain.

3) Impasse - Is when a person  is  feeling stuck and is afraid to make a change.

4) Implosive- It is when the client develops feelings and is aware of their feeling themselves but are not yet ready to take actions related to those feeling layer when the client is authentic

5) Explosive - This is the point where the gestalt therapist wants the client to be there.

Pre-requisites for good contact are: clear awareness, full energy, ability to express oneself.

The ‘self’ arises out of contact as it reaches out and discovers its boundaries, and thus forms relationships. It should be equally permeable (for new experiences) and firm (for autonomy).

The clear distinction between self and others is the contact boundary.

We are constantly in contact with something, either concrete or abstract. Contact happens when the ‘self’ comes in touch with the environment. Here, the ‘self’ becomes the subject, and the environment becomes the ‘other’

Topdog v/s underdog is a game that a client with anxiety can play to avoid anxiety inducing situations.

Top-dog

Top dogs are those qualities which the individual desires to acquire because of social norms and standards.

Under-dog

Underdogs are the opposite of top dogs. They are the excuses that the individual uses to explain why those demands should not be met.

Therapeutic role-play is a technique that allows a person with a phobia to try out new behaviors. In a role-playing session, the therapist takes the identity of someone that the person is afraid to confront, such as a parent or boss.

A person centered focus in therapy is about focusing care on the needs of the person rather than the needs of the service. It means that the person is an equal partner in the planning of care and that his/her opinions are important and are respected.

Following are the Gestalt principles of human perception:

Continuation

This principle is often used in typography based logos as a branding technique. Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move through one object and continue on to another object.

Similarity

Similarity refers to the tendency to perceive things that look similar as being part of one group. When members of a football team wear jerseys of the same colour, the audience can easily understand which player is representing which team even if they are all scattered on the field.

Closure

This phenomenon occurs when an image or element is incomplete or a space is not totally enclosed. If enough of a shape is hinted at, our brain will automatically fill in the information that is missing.

Proximity

This occurs when elements are placed close to each other. The positioning of the elements helps us understand the relationship between different parts.

Symmetry

Elements that are symmetrical to each other are perceived as a whole. A design can have one or more symmetries.

Figure-ground relationship

This principle suggests that the human eye separates an object from its surrounding area. A shape or form is understood as being the figure, and its surrounding area is perceived as the ground. You can choose to focus on the negative or positive space and the image might change accordingly for you.

There are three general rules of perception according to Gestalt theory:

• Objects will be perceived in their simplest form:

Take the olympic logo as an example. When we look at that logo, we do not perceive it as a blue curved line intertwined by a yellow curved line intertwined by a black curved line, and so on. We perceive it as 5 different coloured rings intertwined with each other.

• Humans naturally follow lines or curves:

On Indian roads, a broken white line signals that it is allowed to overtake another vehicle. We do not perceive the broken white line as many smaller lines one after the other. We still see and follow it along the road as one line despite the gaps in between.

• The mind will attempt to fill in detail that isn’t actually there:

In the World Wildlife Fund for Nature logo, the panda’s head and back are technically incomplete as there are no lines finishing the graphic. But our brain uses previous knowledge (and common sense) to fill the unavailable detail.

Brightness constancy is the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change.

Shape constancy is the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant even when its shape on the retina changes.

Size constancy is the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance.

Britannica dictionary defines a constancy as: Perceptual constancy, also called object constancy, or constancy phenomenon, the tendency of animals and humans to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size, colour, or location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, or lighting

As unique as subjective might be, there are some similarities in how we perceive the world around us. Which means, in some circumstances, various individuals interpret certain stimuli in almost the same way.

The Gestalt prayer in its truest sense is vulnerability, sensuality, brevity and dexterity!

Most of the time, people are unaware of the choices they have, the words that are spoken and the meaning of those are different from the map of their world, The gestalt prayer aims to establish an attitude of independence without creating anything new on the basis of the obligation to suit every individual.

The Gestalt Prayer which was written by Fritz Perls is a statement about the Gestalt model as a way of life.

The Gestalt prayer was originally published in 1969, and it goes as:

“I do my thing and you do your thing. I am not in this world to live up to your expectations. And you are not in this world to live up to mine. You are you, and I am I. and if by chance, we find each other it’s beautiful. If not, it can’t be helped”.

In Gestalt therapy, diagnosis is rejected. Diagnosing a client with a problem is rigid and the Gestalt approach believes that the client is fluid. Assessment is done in real time as the contact is forming. The general assessment pattern is observe- bracket- describe. Observation is phenomenological hence it is flexible, and takes into consideration the field along with patterns of behaviour and body language. Interpretation is bracketed and is meant for the therapist only as they want to help the client form their own interpretations. Description of the visible behaviour is given from the therapist’s point of view. Overall this approach is a field approach, hence the person’s existence and interaction with the world is assessed.

Strengths

Gestalt therapy is said to help individuals gain a better understanding of how their emotional and physical needs are connected. People can learn that awareness of the present leads to an understanding of their behaviour and feelings.

Gestalt therapy can benefit those who find it difficult to express themselves fully. This therapy helps them process their emotions and express them well. It is good for those who need an introspective approach.

It has been found to be effective for managing stress, anxiety, addiction, PTSD, depression, and other psychological problems. Overall it helps people to be more confident and aware of themselves.

Weaknesses

Limitations of Gestalt therapy simply means that this kind of therapy is not suitable for certain individuals or certain problems.

For instance, even though this therapy is beneficial for a wide range of psychological problems, it is not best suited for those with major personality disorders, psychosis, or schizophrenia.

Another limitation is that the Gestalt approach does not have a clear definition of human development, as it is more concerned with ‘how’ than ‘why’. Hence problems that might be developmental in nature do not have a proper theoretical explanation in the Gestalt framework.

This therapy can also be seen as majorly self- centered, and challenging rather than supportive for the clients.

In Gestalt therapy, a group is viewed as an integrated psycho-social environment. Group therapy is practiced where there is a group leader, who is a part of the group as well as the captain of the ship. It is his/her job to lead the conversational flow, but the opinions and beliefs of the group members affect him/her as well. The point of group therapy is the development and healing of different individuals in a unified environment, keeping in mind the emotions, attitudes, and behaviours of the others and thus growing individually.

According to Gestalt, couples are perceived as one unit, not two individuals coming together. A couple is a whole which is made up of different family backgrounds, cultures, beliefs, and viewpoints.

In couples’ therapy, a therapist’s goal is to help the couple gain insight into their relationship, resolve conflicts, and maximize their satisfaction. Couples’ therapy can be for a variety of problems like opposing views, infidelity, misunderstanding, separation, etc. Some couples also go to therapy to hear a third person’s point of view on their conflicts, in hopes to find a middle ground.

Avoiding the use of phrases, words, sentences that are continuously repeated by the person, which are mostly negative comments about themselves or others.

Shouldism is idealism of those who escape from reality into a fantasy world. Living in an idealistic world is a sign of not being aware of the present, which must be avoided.

Aboutism is over- reliance on intellectualisation and second- hand learning rather than own experience. Instead of learning from others, one should use their own experiences in order to gain knowledge. For e.g., relationships are not learned from a book, but from personal experience.

Suppressive techniques are used on certain elements, like undesirable mood, which get minimized or eliminated through our conscious efforts. Suppression is essentially not engaging in counter- productive behaviours which include certain thinking patterns and emotions. This results in better regulation of our mood, reduction of distress, and feeling more in control of our emotions. Suppressive techniques can be applied in regular life by avoiding ‘aboutism’, ‘shouldism’, and ‘stale patterns’

This therapeutic tool aims to actualise scenarios that lead to a desirable outcome for the clients by encouraging them to visualise or imagine sounds, pictures, smells, and other sensations associated with reaching a goal. This visualisation of alternative scenarios is done with the idea that these mental images will turn into real strategies for reaching a goal as well as healthy coping skills.

This therapy technique provides the client with a ‘magnifying glass’ on behaviour that wasn’t clearly visible or audible earlier. Exaggerating and repeating certain gestures, facial expressions, or postures help in intensifying the emotion associated with that behaviour which leads to an understanding of it.

Dream work or dream analysis is a therapy technique which aims at making people realise that they are 100% responsible for all their dream images. For e.g., if someone dreams about a big monster attacking a small child, then both the characters are manifestations of the dreamer. Dreams have a significance related directly to the dreamer. Not only every character, but also every object in the dream is a manifestation of some part of the dreamer.

Unfinished business refers to undone tasks or unresolved feelings over a long time, that hinders a person’s growth. People who have some unfinished business are often noticed to be dwelling on the past, and away from the ‘here and now’. One of the aims of Gestalt therapy is to help people get closure for their unfinished business. Resolving past conflicts helps relieve the person from pain and sorrow.

In this therapy technique, the client imagines someone or some part of themself, or a feeling/ emotion in the empty chair. The client then communicates to the imagined second party, as if they are present. At some point, the client goes and sits in that empty chair- occupying the new role. The conversation continues where the client is acting on behalf of the second party. The client can shift between the chairs as often as it is necessary.

This technique helps the client to experience different roles of themselves and/ or others. One can get in touch with one’s own feelings. It is most beneficial for those people who have difficulty expressing their emotions.

A few of the advantages of mindfulness are: reduced rumination, stress reduction, cognitive flexibility, lesser emotional reactivity, reduced psychological distress, increased immune functioning, etc.

Thich Nhat Hanh, a Buddhist monk propagated and popularised mindfulness in the West during the 1970s. He talked about mindfulness and being aware of the present in daily life in his book “The Miracle of Mindfulness”. He urged people to pay attention to what they were experiencing in the present and focus especially on their breathing. He did not believe in disengaging to be mindful.

Mindfulness is the state of active, open attention on the present state. When you are mindful, you carefully observe your thoughts and feelings without judging them as good or bad. Mindfulness thus, can be called as the practice of awareness related to feelings, emotions, sensations, sounds, thoughts, activities, and behaviours.

Change, or alter, is defined as making a difference in the state or condition of a thing or substituting another state or condition.

Change according to Gestalt therapy.

During the course of therapy, clients may change their attitudes, values, or behaviours. But the therapist must remain unattached, unemotional, and non-objective towards this phenomena. According to The Bristol Therapist (2017); “The Gestalt approach to therapy understands genuine change to be a paradox. Simply put, the paradoxical theory of change states the more you try to be something you are not, the more you’ll stay right where you are. Change is an organic process that takes place as a side effect of organismic growth. Organismic growth is what happens when we make full contact with our experience”.

Benefits of experimentation are:

1. Full engagement on a different level.

2. Achieving greater self- awareness.

3. Greater allowance to complete unfinished business.

4. Having a better understanding of own emotions, feelings, strengths, and weaknesses.

5. Understanding own problems and issues and making more rational decisions.

Gestalt therapy uses the client’s ‘freedom’ to give suggestions to the client. For e.g., acting on their fears or uncertainties. Gestalt therapists ask the clients to act out or do something instead of just talking about it.

The most effective way to help clients during therapy is through the use of any experiments necessary, allowing the patient to actually experience something instead of simply talking about the experience.

The Gestalt field theory states that “behaviour is a function of a person in an environment”. This means that a person’s behaviour can’t be viewed in isolation from the situation they are in. This theory views the client’s behaviour as something that can be changed irrespective of the situation. Field theory implies that the individual and their behaviour can be viewed and explored in their individual experience, or in the context of the environment.

Who developed gestalt field theory?

Gestalt field theory was developed by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s.

A gestalt therapist follows the following 5 principles:

• Standing for particular values and skills

Nevis suggests that a Gestalt therapist will develop and employ these values and skills: staying in the present, trusting the process, tuning into your emotions, keeping a non-judgemental approach, awareness of intentions, seeing and accepting where the client is right now, facing emotional situations with minimum personal defensiveness, and making positive social contact.

• Modelling a way of solving problems and of dealing with life in general

Nevis also insists, however, that "it is important to try to identify concrete, specific behaviours that form the basis for client and gestalt therapist effectiveness" (p. 90). For example, by listening without judgment to all aspects of the client's experience, the gestalt therapist models the notion of listening impartially to oneself. By being accepting and non-judgmental of the client's feelings, the gestalt therapist models non-judgmental self-acceptance in the client. By being real and congruent and genuine, the therapist models that kind of behaviour for the client (Baldwin, 2000, p. 31).

• Helping to focus the client's energy on the problems, not on preferred solutions

The gestalt approach to consulting downplays problem-solving in favour of helping the client to conceptualize that problem in new ways. Information and expertise are not withheld from the client, of course, but the gestalt therapist tirelessly focuses on the what is the here and now, while descriptively assessing the problem and its context as these unfold. The descriptive assessment offers breadth and depth to a problem definition, with the anticipation that sheer awareness of this expanded and enhanced definition may lead to a solution that was not available until that moment of awareness. The goal is to foster an "'emergent reality' that unfolds from a conversation structured by . . . curiosity about the client's ideas, attitudes, and speculations about change" (Duncan & Miller, 2000, p. 182).

• Teaching basic behavioural skills

Presence is not manufactured; it is something everyone displays at all times, whether one is aware of what others respond to or not. However, presence is most powerful when it embodies a compelling model or theory of learning. While some learning models are more useful than others in influencing adult behaviour change, the important point is that the gestalt therapist has internalized one that has proven useful over time. (Nevis, 1987, p. 75).

• Evoking conditions that enable experimentation

The gestalt therapist's presence aims to evoke some form of change in the system by creating awareness. Such awareness is gained not only through experience, but can also "evolve out of . . . experimentation" (Goodman, 1999, p. 63), or in the more commonly used organizational terms, through creating a "pilot."

The primary goals of psychosynthesis include:

1) A greater level of self-awareness

2) Ability to access one‘s inner wisdom and use it as a guide

3) Promote self-healing

4) Move towards one‘s highest potential

Psychosynthesis is based on several key assumptions: All people have incredible potential, most of which are never realized.

1) Humans have an innate tendency to synthesize or integrate all aspects of who they are, in order to reach their full potential.

2) Psychosynthesis strives to work in harmony with this natural tendency in order to help individuals attain a high level of self-actualization and self-realization – i.e. move towards their highest potential.

3) The challenges we face in life are opportunities for increased self-awareness, personal growth, and transformation. We always have a choice in terms of how we respond to life‘s challenges.

4) The role of the therapist isn‘t to give advice or offer interpretation; rather, it‘s to support and guide clients as they explore and discover their own solutions to whatever problems they‘re facing.

Psychosynthesis is an approach to psychology that was developed by an

Italian psychiatrist - Roberto Assagioli.

According to the counselling directory of the UK: ‘Psychosynthesis’ is a therapeutic approach that derives from psychoanalysis. Therapists in psychosynthesis counselling work to establish a specific relationship with their clients and will draw on a range of diverse techniques to guide them through the process of self-actualisation and self-realisation.

An important concept in Gestalt therapy is being in the ‘here and now’. Awareness of the present situation, feelings, emotions, sensations, and people around you is achieved by living in the ‘here and now’.

Personal responsibility and awareness include skills, strategies, emotional regulation, goal setting, etc. that helps an individual to stay active.

We know of our awareness through the 5 senses of seeing, hearing, feeling, smell, and taste.

Awareness has 5 important qualities:

• Contact

When you come in contact with or are exposed to the environment, you come in contact with your awareness. Example: When you lift a rose, you feel the petal and come in contact with the gentleness of the petal, and when you touch the thorn you feel the prick.

• Sensing

You try to make sense of the environment by determining the nature of the environment, for example, when you suddenly feel a prick or when something is poking you, you try to make sense and try to understand whether it is a pin that is poking you or a thorn.

• Excitement

The environment will trigger you to take some responsibility or express some emotion. Like if you feel the pain of the prick, you will wince audibly or if you find that the prick you are feeling is from some harmful weapon or animal, you will shout for help or run and save yourself.

• Figure

Formation: Awareness is shaped by what is important to you and that is how your figure gets formed, the figure is formed by what is important for you at this particular moment. Again, to give an example, if you feel a prick due to a pin, as it is a minute prick, you tend to ignore it as your figure formation leans towards your goal: which is to get this article done. Whereas if the prick is felt by a rusted nail and you are bleeding badly, your figure is now to deal with the pain and see how you can prevent further  damage  and  at  this  time,  writing articles is no more your focus.

• Wholeness

This is an optional step, as not all awareness will lead to closure (wholeness). Wholeness will depend on whether the task undertaken is completed or left in between.

Attention can be defined as the convolution of sensory processing with long- and short-term memory. Awareness, on the other hand, depends critically on recurrent processing.

Holism is the idea that several systems should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a gathering of parts.

Awareness is the primary goal of the Gestalt process. Being aware means being fully in touch with yourself and your surroundings, which include the people around you. Awareness includes all your senses, feelings, emotions, and thinking. Awareness also includes full acceptance of self and others, taking responsibility for your own emotions, behaviours, and actions.

For a dialogical relationship to form there has to be:

• Presence and awareness of the process,

• Presence of the therapist’s authentic self,

• Feedback,

• A non-judgemental approach, and

• Acceptance.

A dialogical relationship is not created with the sole aim to achieve a certain goal. Rather it is formed to gain full awareness of the ‘self’ and take responsibility of the same. It is a therapeutic process that leads to psychological healing. The therapist is fully committed to, and trusts, the process.

In order to create awareness, a phenomenological and existential dialogue between the therapist and client is necessary. In Gestalt, change in the client is not brought about by the therapist, but rather by the contact that is formed between the two through honest dialogue. Thus, the therapist engages the client in dialogue instead of manipulating the client towards the therapeutic goals. Genuine contact is formed through honesty, awareness, acceptance, and empathy.

1. Rule of epoché: Setting aside initial biases and prejudices in order to suspend expectations and assumptions.

2. Rule of description: One occupies oneself with describing instead of explaining.

3. Rule of horizontalisation: Avoids hierarchical assignment of importance such that the date of experience becomes prioritised and categorised as they are received.

Phenomenology functions on the presumption that one is not taking one’s previous experiences into account, which leads to gaining ‘self awareness’, which is the ultimate goal of phenomenological exploration.

Phenomenology is the notion that nothing can be known unless the knowing comes through consciousness. It is a method of enquiry into how clients have made meaning in their life. It seeks to understand how the “experience is experienced by the experiencer”.

Relationship problems arise when one of the two feels the need to compromise. In Gestalt therapy, the therapist aims to make the client feel ‘whole and complete’ in order to have positive and fulfilling relationships with others. Relationships are complex but they do not necessarily function on compromises.

The goal of Gestalt therapy is to raise the client’s awareness regarding how they function in their environment, i.e. with family, friends, at work, or school, etc.

People prefer to blame others for their mistakes instead of taking responsibility as a defence mechanism. Projection of own issues onto other people happens when the ego defends itself by denying positive/ negative unconscious impulses or qualities.

Social responsibility, according to Gestalt, can be achieved by following an egalitarian approach, i.e. total respect for self and others.

The Gestalt approach states that humans have a social responsibility towards themselves and others. One must have total respect for self and others as well as accept that the others have different opinions and perspectives as they are their own selves.

Respect in Gestalt therapy is applied to:

1. the individual self as a human being who needs help.

2. the client’s views and attitudes towards the world, other people and themselves.

3. the therapeutic process, and the individual pace of healing and growing.

4. towards the client’s feelings.

Connecting with the present state is the fundamental principle of Gestalt. It can be achieved by discovering suppressed feelings of the past which thus leads to overall awareness. Other factors include having full acceptance of the present and of the development and growth so far. Focusing too much on the past or future brings more pain and less awareness of self.

In therapy, self can be seen in three different ways:

The ‘self’ as a process

Some therapists view the ‘self’ as an attribute that is always continuing and always changing.

The ‘self’ as multi-dimensional

Some therapists view ‘self’ as something that consists of layers. These layers have to be harmoniously connected to each other and all of them should function well.

The ‘self’ as dialogical

‘Self’ can be seen as some psychological construct that describes the mind of the person and that is in some interaction with others.

The ‘self’ is formed through contact after contact with the ‘others’. It is common to find similar traits in each relationship as it builds.

In philosophical understanding, the ‘self’ is something that is a large part of a human being and that co-exists with the notion of ‘others’. So if there is ‘self’, then there are ‘others’. Therefore it means, ‘self’ cannot exist without ‘others’ and is connected to ‘others’ through relationships. When ‘self’ is explored through therapy, the person’s feelings and emotions in relation to ‘others’ are explored too.

The concept of self can also be compared to the Freudian concept of ‘ego’. In Greek, the personal pronoun used to designate the first person is ‘ego’, and the Gestalt approach also revolves around the ‘I’.

Creating a bond based on trust and empathy is a stepping stone towards the client feeling confident to share their thoughts and experiences. This sharing will later lead to an attempt towards change or healing. Thus, building a therapeutic relationship is important.

A positive therapeutic relationship is initially formed by being genuine and empathetic with a client. Having a non-judgemental and trusting approach towards the client and their capabilities, giving early evidence of being helpful, clear communication, and choosing the right language to bond are very important factors. Besides these, forming an emotional bond with the client by being intellectually, physically, and emotionally available for them as well as giving them undivided attention is necessary. Last but not the least, connecting and engaging with the client over their likes, dislikes, common interests, people in their lives, etc. adds a personal touch.

A therapeutic relationship is the bond created between a client and a therapist or counsellor over time. It is based on mutual trust, caring and respect. Mutual agreement on the goals of the therapy is also vital during the building of a therapeutic relationship, as well as working towards those goals together.

In this form of therapy, direct modification of cognition and behaviour is avoided. Rather, a therapist comes in contact with the client and offers a safe space for growth and development through real time feedback. The therapist is honest, relatable, non-judgemental and respectful of the client’s thoughts and opinions.

Individual or face to face therapy is the classical form of therapy which involves a physical sit-down with the therapist. It is ideal as a deep therapeutic relationship can be formed in this way. It is possible to read each other’s body language and communication is better. Some of the cons can be the travelling time and cost.

Therapy carried out over a phone is known as telephone based therapy. The major advantage of this therapy is its convenience. When it is physically not possible to go out and meet your therapist, it seems feasible to do so over the phone. However it also has downsides, the biggest one is not being able to see each other, which is a hindering factor for building a positive therapeutic relationship. It is difficult for the therapist to judge the client’s emotions as s/he cannot read their facial expressions or body language.

Online therapy can be as effective as face-to-face therapy. It can be done over email. This type of therapy is suitable for those who don’t have access to nearby facilities, are too embarrassed or anxious to talk about problems and hence prefer communicating via email, or if they live in another city or country.

Online Gestalt therapy is not suitable for those who are in the midst of a serious crisis, or are not comfortable using the internet, or simply cannot express their feelings through writing. It can also be a hindrance when people don’t realise that e-therapy is fairly new and does have its downsides.

A group therapy is where three or more people participate in a workshop like psychoeducation, discussion, or learning a new skill. It can be created for a wide range of psychological issues like depression, stress, anger management, alcohol and/or drug addiction, anxiety, etc.

Oftentimes couples seek professional help or assistance for resolving relationship issues. Generally the cause behind these problems is the underlying problem, which leads to many other problems. For e.g., jealousy related problems, infidelity, financial issues, conflicting beliefs, etc

There are several forms of therapy like couple’s therapy, group therapy, online therapy, telephone based therapy, and individual or face to face therapy.

The first similarity between Gestalt and Psycho-analysis is that both forms of therapy follow a directive approach. This means that the course of the therapy is directed by the counsellor or therapist as per the relevance and specific requirements.

The second similarity is that of wholeness and the self. Both therapies emphasise on a person’s id, ego, and superego and its relation with the self, society, and culture.

Another similarity is that Gestalt therapy and Psycho-analysis aim towards a person’s growth and development. This includes lesser regression and greater focus on the present.

Gestalt is ‘active’ whilst psychoanalysis is ‘quiet’. Gestalt therapists have to constantly be aware and present in the therapy, challenge the clients as well as encourage them to be mindful and present, and constantly demand feedback so as to keep the clients in the ‘here and now’. Psycho-analysis mainly involves listening, letting the client talk freely about things that come to their minds, and occasional interpretations.

Gestalt, once again, focuses on the present. Psycho-analysis delves into the past, unconscious memories, dreams, fantasies, etc.

Gestalt therapists generally engage in as few or as many sessions as required. The duration of this therapy is completely based on the situation and the rapport between the therapist and the client. Psycho-analysts tend to conduct therapy sessions over several weeks or even months.

In Gestalt, the emphasis is purely on accepting responsibility for one’s own life which is influenced by the environment. According to Psycho-analysis, the unconscious forces, such as our ego, are to blame for our problems.

The origin of psycho-analysis can be found in the works of Sigmund Freud. The aim of this therapy is to release repressed emotions, feelings, and experiences; or make the unconscious conscious.

According to Webster’s dictionary, psycho-analysis is a method of analyzing psychic phenomena and treating emotional disorders that involves treatment sessions during which the person is encouraged to talk freely about personal experiences and especially about early childhood and dreams.

Gestalt is a humanistic approach which gained popularity rapidly due to its impact on society and culture. This form of therapy is a fusion of different kinds of therapy but it mainly focuses on being aware and taking responsibility. This mixture of several other therapies has been curated and compiled over many years by many people.

According to Abraham Maslow (1968), humanistic approach is the “third force” in psychology after psychoanalysis and behaviourism.  The humanistic approach essentially studies the whole person and especially their uniqueness. This approach revolves around a person’s worth, values, morals, creativity, and resilience.

An important concept in Gestalt therapy is being in the ‘here and now’. Awareness of the present situation, feelings, emotions, sensations, and people around you is achieved by living in the ‘here and now’.

Gestalt therapists aim to guide clients to describe the ‘what and how’ of an experience rather than the explanation or ‘why’. This is a way of staying connected to the present moment.

Holism is the idea that several systems should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a gathering of parts.

Gestalt Therapy deems that people cannot be considered as separate from their environment or from interpersonal relations. The individual is seen as being self-regulating and is able to motivate oneself to solve problems.

Retroflection is a way of doing to oneself what one would like for others to do to him/her. For e.g., boasting about something that one wants to be praised for.

Projection is also a defense mechanism where one attributes one’s own undesirable thoughts/ impulses/ ideas on to another person as a way of conflict resolution.

According to the psychoanalytic theory, introjection is a defense mechanism used to resolve an emotional conflict by placing a mental representation of an object inside the mind. If this leads to increased independence, this mechanism is said to be highly adaptive.

Resistance is a fundamental concept in Gestalt which is an obstruction for cycles of contact, need satisfaction, or unfolding of the self.

A polarity is defined as ‘an extreme occurrence of the phase of a phenomenon’; for e.g. night and day, life and death, etc. Polarities hence mean the extremes of our perception, action, emotional state, thought process, etc. which is basically a phase of a phenomenon occurring now.

Creative adjustment is about forming and maintaining a tolerable level of contact with any given situation, while also being able to adapt to new or old situations in a different manner.

Organismic self regulation is the creative adjustment that the client makes in relation to the environment. The gestalt therapist finds out what the client’s figure is as it changes pertaining to their needs.

Change, or alter, is defined as making a difference in the state or condition of a thing or substituting another state or condition. During the course of therapy, clients may change their attitudes, values, or behaviours. But the therapist must remain unattached, unemotional, and non-objective towards this phenomena. According to The Bristol Therapist (2017); “The Gestalt approach to therapy understands genuine change to be a paradox. Simply put, the paradoxical theory of change states the more you try to be something you are not, the more you’ll stay right where you are. Change is an organic process that takes place as a side effect of organismic growth. Organismic growth is what happens when we make full contact with our experience”.

Awareness is the primary goal of the Gestalt process. Being aware means being fully in touch with yourself and your surroundings, which include the people around you. Awareness includes all your senses, feelings, emotions, and thinking. Awareness also includes full acceptance of self and others, taking responsibility for your own emotions, behaviours, and actions. Gestalt aims for awareness to be a continuous process.

Gestalt therapy, at its core, is an experiential therapy. A gestalt therapist may ask a “what if..?” question which will demand present awareness and participation from the client, thus keeping in touch with reality as well as participating actively rather than passively.

A ‘dialogue’ is the third philosophical foundation. A dialogue requires the therapist to be fully present in the conversation here and now, accept the clients for who they are their capabilities- also known as confirmation, and apply the I-Thou mode of relating as it creates a non-hierarchical therapeutic environment and employs awareness, directness and mutuality.

The second philosophy is that of ‘phenomenology’. Phenomenology is almost artistic in nature. A therapist creates meaning out of what s/he observes during the therapy, instead of relying on experience and expertise. The client is also encouraged to do the same. Both the therapist and the client are expected to bring all their emotions, feelings, senses to the table during therapy and construct an understanding of the current situation from a fresh perspective.

Gestalt therapy is based on three philosophies. The first is the ‘field theory’, which means that the therapist attends to the entire “field” of the client, including the background, subject matter, and the “here and now” process in the present. According to Gestalt therapists, no experience or emotion exists on its own. Each element in our field interacts with, and is dependent upon each other.

Counselling and psychotherapy are often used interchangeably even though there are a few differences between the two. The main similarity between the two would be that both are forms of talk therapy, or therapy through communication. The key point of difference between the two would be that counselling is a relatively brief treatment than psychotherapy, and it majorly revolves around dealing with behavioural patterns.

Counselling helps people in identifying and correcting maladaptive behaviours and taking positive steps towards healthy coping mechanisms. Counselling is helpful for people with a good insight about their presenting problems and have the ability to resolve their issues.

Psychotherapy on the other hand aims to aid people with psychological problems that have developed over the course of several years. It helps people identify the reasoning and background behind their issues, and helps them gain insight.

Counselling provided by trained professionals can make a profound impact on the lives of individuals, families and communities. Counselling helps people deal with difficult life situations, such as the death of a loved one, divorce, natural disasters, school stress and the loss of a job.

The American Counseling Association defines counselling as, "a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals." Counselling involves helping people make needed changes in ways of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Psychotherapy can be administered in individual, couple, or group settings. It can help children as well as adults of any age. In psychotherapy, it is essential for the client to be actively involved as it helps the process and can draw out desirable results.

Psychotherapy, also known as talk therapy, is a way to eliminate or control distressing symptoms of various mental illnesses or disorders, or emotional problems. Psychotherapy is useful for a wide variety of issues ranging from depression, anxiety, trauma to impact of financial, socio-economic, political unrest, losing a loved one, losing a job, relationship problems, and so on. Psychotherapy may be coupled with medication or other forms of therapy for optimum outcomes.

Psychoanalysis is defined as a set of psychological theories and therapeutic methods which have their origin in the work and theories of Sigmund Freud. The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e., make the unconscious conscious.

DBT helps people build four major skills: mindfulness, distress tolerance, interpersonal effectiveness, and emotional regulation.

Following are some other forms of therapy:

CBT

Cognitive behavioural therapy is a psychological intervention technique which aims to improve mental health. It primarily focuses on challenging unhealthy coping mechanisms and thought patterns, improving emotional regulation and developing personal coping techniques to overcome problems.

REBT

Rational emotive behaviour therapy is a kind of behavioural therapy devised by Albert Ellis. It's an approach that helps you identify irrational beliefs and negative thought patterns that may lead to emotional or behavioral issues.

3 main beliefs of REBT

REBT therapists strive to help their clients develop three types of acceptance:

(1) unconditional self-acceptance,

(2) unconditional other-acceptance, and

(3) unconditional life-acceptance.

DBT

Dialectic behavioural therapy is a kind of CBT that was developed to treat borderline personality disorder. It may be useful in dealing with suicidal ideation, substance abuse, self harm, and mood disorders.

Fritz Perls contributed to the field of Gestalt therapy not just through idea formation and execution, but also by printing and publishing important material that is still relevant. Some of his famous books are : Ego, Hunger and Aggression (1942)

Gestalt Therapy Verbatim (1969)

In and Out the Garbage Pail (1969)

Besides Fritz and Laura Perls, the contributions of Paul Goodman, Isadore From, Paul Weisz, Lotte Weisz, Elliot Shapiro, Alison Montague and Sylvester Eastman were also of great importance.

Fritz Perls founded Gestalt therapy in Germany along with his wife Laura in the 1940s. He was trained in psychiatry and psychoanalysis, but he found himself disagreeing with certain Freudian theories, which led him to develop his own form of therapy. He fled Nazi Germany with his wife and moved to the Netherlands, then South Africa, before finally settling in New York City, where he worked on his books.

Laura was a Gestalt psychologist before she was a psychoanalyst, which was even before she developed Gestalt therapy with her husband.

According to Perls, the core of Gestalt therapy is enhanced self awareness which includes sensations, perceptions, bodily experiences, behaviour and emotions in the present moment.

Friedrich Salomon Perls, better known as Fritz Perls was a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and psychotherapist of German origin. In the 1940s and 1950s, he developed Gestalt therapy with his wife, Laura Perls.

Gestalt therapy was developed by Fritza and Laura Perls in the 1940s and 50s.

Gestalt therapy is a person-centered form of psychotherapy that focuses on the client’s present life and challenges rather than looking into past experiences. An important part of therapy is an individual’s past life, but Gestalt therapy places greater importance on the ‘here and now’ experience of the client. Understanding the context of a person’s current experiences is vital according to Gestalt therapists. The reason behind such an approach is for the clients to take responsibility rather than placing blame.

The gestalt theory applies to all aspects of human learning, with specific focus on perception and problem solving techniques.

Gestalt psychology originates in the works of Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler as a response to Titchener’s structuralism. Structuralists believed that all experiences can be broken down into individual sensations and emotions. Propagators of Gestalt school of thought psychological events cannot be broken down into smaller parts. The famous saying ‘whole is greater than the sum of its parts’ was born out of their work.

“Gestalt” as a concept was introduced by German philosopher Christian Von Ehrenfels in 1890. The term “gestalt” is abstracted from “ungestalt” (German word for ‘deformity’), which is why there is still no exact translation for “gestalt”. According to Webster’s dictionary, gestalt means “something that is made of many parts and yet is somehow more than or different from the combination of its parts”. It is commonly defined as a ‘form, or ‘shape’, a ‘unified whole’ or ‘configuration’. It was later founded as a school of psychology by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler in 1912.

Gestalt Psychology is a school of thought which speculates that the human brain tends to organise visual elements as a ‘unified whole’ rather than merely a gathering of individual components. When we try to make sense of the world, we do not simply focus on each small element; instead we tend to look at those as a part of a bigger, more complex system. ‘Gestalt’ is a word of German origin which roughly translates to ‘an organised whole’ or a ‘configuration’.